Approaching a Writing Project

1. ESTABLISHING THE MINDSET

The thought of preparing a piece of scientific writing can intimidate even the best writers. However, establishing a suitable mindset and taking an appropri­ate approach can make the task manageable. Perhaps most basic, remember that you are writing to communicate, not to impress. Readers of scientific papers want to know what you did, what you found, and what it means; they are not seeking great literary merit. If you do good research and present it clearly, you will please and satisfy readers. Indeed, in scientific writing, read­ers should notice mainly the content, not the style.

Realize that those reading your work want you to do well. They are not out to thwart you. Journal editors are delighted to receive good papers; ditto for the scientists they enlist as referees (peer reviewers) to help evaluate your work. Likewise, if you are a student, professors want you to do well. Yes, these people often make constructive criticisms. But they are not doing so because they dis­like you; rather, they do so because they want your work to succeed. Do not be paralyzed by the prospect of criticism. Rather, feel fortunate that you will receive feedback that can help your writing to be its best.

2. PREPARING TO WRITE

In the laboratory, careful preparation helps experiments proceed smoothly and efficiently. Much the same is true of scientific writing. By preparing carefully before you start to compose a manuscript, you can make writing relatively easy and painless. Of course, in our unbiased view, preparing to write should include reading this book and keeping it on hand to consult. (Our publisher suggests buying a copy for your office or lab, a copy to use at home, and maybe one to keep in your car or boat.) But using this book is only a start. The following also can help.

Good writing is largely a matter of effective imitation. Therefore, obtain cop­ies of highly regarded scientific papers in your research area, including papers in the journal to which you plan to submit your current work. Notice how these papers are written. For example: What sections do they include, and in what order? How long do the various sections tend to be? What types of sub­headings, if any, tend to be included? How many figures and tables, and what types thereof, are typical? Especially if you are a non-native speaker of English, what seem to be some standard phrases that you could use in presenting your own work? Using published papers as models can prepare you to craft a man­uscript that will be suitable to submit.

Successful writing also entails following instructions. Essentially every sci­entific journal issues instructions to authors. Following these instructions takes much of the guesswork out of writing and can save you from the unpleas­ant task of rewriting a paper because it did not meet the journal’s specifica­tions. If instructions are long (some journals’ instructions run several pages or more), underline or highlight the key points to remember. Alternatively, you may list, on colored paper so you can easily find them, those points most rel­evant to the paper you will write. Also consider bookmarking on your computer the journal’s instructions to authors, especially if the instructions encompass links for accessing different parts of their content.

For more detailed guidance—for instance, on nomenclature, reference for­mats, and grammar—instructions for authors often refer readers to standard style manuals. Among style manuals commonly used in the sciences are the following:

The ACS [American Chemical Society] Style Guide (Coghill and Garson 2006)

AMA [American Medical Association] Manual of Style (Iverson et al. 2007)

The Chicago Manual of Style (2010)

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010)

Scientific Style and Format (Style Manual Subcommittee, Council of Science Editors 2014)

New editions of these manuals come out from time to time. Increasingly, such manuals are available in online versions as well as in print. Look for the most recent edition of the style manual you will use. Commonly, you can find such style manuals in the reference sections of academic and other libraries. Many libraries also offer online access to style manuals. If you lack easy access, con­sider investing in the style manual(s) most commonly used in your research field. In any case, be ready to consult such manuals.

If you do not have reference-management software—for example, EndNote, Reference Manager, or RefWorks—now may be a good time to obtain it. Many universities make such software readily available and provide instruction in its use. Further information about such software appears in Chapter 15.

While you are gathering scientific content, ideas for your paper may occur to you. For example, you may think of a point to include in the discussion. Or you may come up with a good way to structure a table. Write down these ideas; con­sider creating for each section of your paper a file—either paper or electronic— in which to place them. Not only will recording your ideas keep them from escaping your memory, but having such ideas readily available to draw on can get your writing off to a quick start.

Once you have gathered and analyzed your data, speaking can be a fine transition to writing. If possible, present your work at a departmental seminar or local research day. Perhaps give an oral or poster presentation at a confer­ence. Preparing to speak can help in formulating your article. Also, questions from listeners can help you to shape what you will write.

Research typically is a team endeavor. So is reporting on research. In the writing as in the research, different team members commonly take different roles. Sometimes one member drafts the whole paper and the others review and revise it. Other times, different members draft different parts of the paper and then circulate them for review. Whatever the case, clarify beforehand who will do what, and perhaps set a timetable. Maybe consider what software, if any, you will use to facilitate collaboration. Will you share drafts via Dropbox? Will you be using Google Docs? Will you use software designed specifically for aca­demic collaboration? Discuss such matters before starting to write.

To facilitate writing, do lots of pre-writing. For example, stack copies of pub­lished papers in the order in which you plan to cite them. Make outlines. List points you wish to make in a given section, and sort and re-sort them until you are pleased with the order. Perhaps make a formal outline. By doing much of the thinking and organization beforehand, you can lower the activation energy needed to write a paper. In fact, such pre-writing can catalyze the writing pro­cess so well that you find yourself eager to write.

In preparing to write, realize that sometimes ideas must percolate for a while. If, for example, you cannot come up with an effective way to begin your paper or to structure a section, take a break. Exercise for a while, take a nap, or maybe discuss your work with someone. A solution may then occur to you.

3. DOING THE WRITING

Doing the writing means making time to do it. Most of us in science are busy. If writing must wait until we have extra time, it might never get done. There­fore, block out times to write. Indicate on your calendar or in your personal organizer the times that you have reserved for specific writing projects. Except in emergencies, do not let other tasks impinge on those times. Also, set dead­lines. For example, promise yourself that you will draft a given section by Thurs­day. Or make clear to yourself that you will not leave for vacation until you have submitted a given item.

One highly published professor advocates the following approach (Zerubavel 1999): On a sheet of paper showing your weekly schedule hour by hour, cross out the times you are regularly unavailable—for example, times that you teach, have laboratory meetings, or have personal commitments. Then choose from the remaining times some to reserve for writing. In doing so, consider what times of day you tend to write most effectively. For example, if you are a night person, block out some evenings during which to write each week; perhaps save some morning time for more routine writing-related tasks, such as check­ing references. If you are a morning person, do the reverse.

When writing, you can start with whatever part of a manuscript you find easi­est; there is no rule that you must write the introduction first. Many researchers like to begin by drafting the methods section, which tends to be the most straight­forward to write. Many like to begin by drafting the figures and tables. Some like to start by drafting a preliminary reference list—or even the acknowledg­ments. And many authors leave until last the writing of the title and abstract. Once you have drafted one section, the momentum that you have established can facilitate writing the others. Feel free to draft the remaining sections in what­ever order works best for you. Although the structure of Part II of this book parallels that of a scientific paper—with the first chapter addressing “How to Prepare the Title” and the last “How to Cite the References”—you can draft the parts of a scientific paper (and read these chapters) in whatever order works best for you.

Once you have established momentum, beware of dissipating it by inter­rupting your writing to search for small details. Rather, make notes to find the missing information; to identify them easily, write them in boldface type in your manuscript or use the “new comment” feature in Word. Also, if a manu­script will take more than one session to draft, consider how you can best main­tain your momentum from session to session. Some authors like to stop in the middle of a section while still going strong. Before ending their writing session, they jot down the next few points they wish to make. Thus, at their next writing session they can start quickly. Consider taking this approach.

Much like doing a piece of scientific research, crafting a scientific paper typi­cally entails solving a series of problems in order to achieve the overall objective. In writing, as in research, often the problems have more than one reasonable solution, each with advantages and disadvantages. Yet writers sometimes worry that there is “one right way” (Becker 1986). Just how should a given item be worded? In just what format should a given illustration appear? How should a given part of the paper be organized? Often such questions have more than one good answer. Find one that seems reasonable and go with it. If it seems inadequate, or if a better solution occurs to you, you can make changes when you revise your manuscript.

4. REVISING YOUR WORK

Good writing tends to be largely a matter of good revising. No one will see your early drafts, and no one cares how rough they are (a comforting thought to those facing writer’s block). The important thing is to revise your writing until it works well. First revise your writing yourself. Then show it to others and, using their feedback, revise your writing some more.

Revision is not just for students or other beginners. Researchers with long success in publishing revise the papers they write. After a presentation to a scientific-writing class, a well-known scientist and journal editor was asked, “Do you revise your work?” He answered: “If I’m lucky, only about 10 times.”

In revising your work, ask yourself questions such as the following:

• Does the manuscript include all the information it should?
• Should any content be deleted?
• Is all the information accurate?
• Is all the reasoning sound?
• Is the content consistent throughout?
• Is everything logically organized?
• Is everything clearly worded?
• Have you stated your points briefly, simply, and directly? In other words, is everything concise?
• Are grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word use correct throughout?
• Are all figures and tables well designed?
• Does the manuscript comply with the instructions?

Information that can aid in answering some of these questions appears in later chapters of the book. For example, Chapters 10 through 13 describe the appro­priate content and organization of the main sections of a scientific paper, and Chapters 30 through 34 address word usage and related subjects. In addition to reading these chapters before you write, consider consulting them as you revise your manuscript. Also, for further guidance, please see Chapter 41, which focuses mainly on editing one’s own work.

Once your manuscript is nearly the best you can make it, show it to others and request their feedback. Years ago, scientists were advised, “Show your manu­script to a guy in your lab, a guy in a lab down the hall, and your wife.” These days, such advice would rightly be viewed as inaccurate and sexist. Yet the con­cept remains valid. So, consider following this advice: Show your manuscript to an expert in your research specialty, who can help identify technical prob­lems. Also show it to someone in your general field, who can note, for example, items that may be unclear to readers. And show it to an intelligent general reader—for instance, a friend in the humanities—who may identify problems that those interested mainly in the content tend to miss. In addition, consider also showing your manuscript to a professional scientific editor, as discussed in Chapter 41.

After receiving feedback from those reviewing your manuscript, consider how to apply it. Of course, follow those suggestions that you find useful. Even if a suggestion seems unsuitable, keep it in mind. Although you may disagree with it, it may alert you to a problem. For example, if a reader misinterpreted a point, you may try to state it more clearly. Comparing the various readers’ com­ments may aid in this regard. If only one reader had difficulty with an item, you might dismiss it as a fluke. If, however, multiple readers did so, improve­ment probably is needed.

Revise your writing thoroughly. But avoid the temptation to keep revising it forever. No manuscript is perfect. Be satisfied with mere excellence. Journal editors and others will be pleased to receive the fine manuscripts you prepare by following the advice in this chapter and the rest of this book.

Source: Gastel Barbara, Day Robert A. (2016), How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, Greenwood; 8th edition.