Reprography

One of the commonest tasks in the office is that of multiple copying, the requirements ranging from two or three copies to thousands. To meet these varying demands many types of machine have been developed, both duplicators and photocopiers. In fact, advances in the design of photocopiers using electrostatic methods have led to encroachment into what were once the sole applications of duplicators and the whole field of multiple copying is now generally referred to under the heading of reprography. Nevertheless, it is convenient to consider the machines involved separately, and we will start with duplicators.

1. Spirit Duplicators

This is probably the simplest method of duplication where less than 250 copies are required and where quality of image is not important. It makes use of a hectographic carbon master image and masters can be originated by hand or typewriter, as well as by thermal photocopiers. This last feature is useful where a suitable original exists and avoids the necessity to recreate the original in master form.

A very important aspect of this system is its ability to reproduce up to seven colours in one run, which is useful for such jobs as the reproduc­tion of statistical tables and graphs where colours are an advantage.

Many of the machines are quite versatile, which encourages the use of this method in office systems such as invoicing, sales procedures, production control and others. Some of the equipment is fitted with a line selection device which enables the operator to duplicate only selected lines from a master, even further facilitating the use of this method in office procedures.

2. Stencil Duplicators

Although being severely challenged by the modern volume-production photocopier, the stencil duplicator is probably the most widely used and best known office duplicating machine, giving up to 5000 or more good copies from a single master. Its name describes it accurately since it makes use of stencils cut into thin plastic skins. This can be done by hand, by typewriter and, where a suitable original already exists, by electronic stencil cutter or thermal photocopier. When properly operated this method produces excellent copies. It is sometimes called an ink duplicator.

It should be mentioned that though still available both spirit and stencil duplicators are becoming obsolete in favour of plain paper photocopiers, described under ‘Electrostatic copying’.

3. Offset-litho Duplicators

Offset-litho printing, based on the antipathy of grease and water, has been in use in the printing industry for very many years and the development of small, easy-to-operate machines for office use has led to its increasing popularity for office duplicating. Very long runs of quality equal to print are possible with this method. The best metal masters will produce up to 50 000 copies, but cheaper masters can be used for short runs: paper ones will produce 500-900 copies, for example.

Besides being produced by hand or typewriter, masters can be produced by photocopying or photographically so that intricate originals, including photographs, can be reproduced. It is possible to produce almost all the office printing on offset-litho within the office itself with a significant saving in printing costs. Used in conjunction with a typewriter with variable type styles and possibly a photo-composing machine and a photocopier, this type of duplicator can cope with quite advanced printing jobs such as forms, letter-headings and even sales brochures. Where facilities are not posssessed for making complicated master plates these can be produced by specialist service bureaux at reasonable cost.

4. Automatic Typewriters and Word Processors

Details of these machines will be found in Chapters 8 and 9. They are mentioned here as a reminder that they are essentially a form of duplicator and are much used to produce duplicated matter that has the appearance of being individually typed.

Equally, it must be remembered that they are also capable of many applications not possible with a standard duplicator, some of which have been described in the relevant chapters.

5. Addressing Machines

Not all the duplicating in an office consists of numerous copies from one original at one time. Frequently the requirements is for one or two copies only from each of many masters, such as envelopes in a direct mail sales campaign, at regular or irregular intervals. This office problem is dealt with mechanically by the addressing machine.

There are three types of masters used in addressing machines:

1. Metal plates for considerable usage. These have the drawback of needing a special embossing machine for their production, though specialist bureaux will undertake this work.
2. Stencils, for constant use. These are easily typed on normal typewriters.
3. Spirit masters. These are easily typed but have a relatively short life.

Applications

In addition to their addressing function, addressing machines are used in systems work. This is made possible by provision on the more advanced machines for:

1. Automatic plate selection for printing, where specific plates can be skipped as necessary.
2. Line selection where selected parts only of a plate or plates are reproduced.
3. Repeat facilities.
4. Listing devices.

Among the applications to which addressing machines are put are:

Notices of meetings. Heading up pre-printed notices, proxy forms and so on.

Wages procedures. Wages bags, payroll sheets and so on in conjunc­tion with the line selection device.

Invoicing: Customers’ names and addresses, prices and extended product descriptions and similar information are kept on plates which are pulled and printed as required.

Credit control. Inter-store credit cards are an example, as are Visa, Access and American Express credit cards.

These are just a few of the applications to which addressing machines are put, but there are many more in connection with production control, stores control and similar procedures. In fact, the term ‘addressing machine’ is a misnomer and this equipment is amongst the most versatile available to the office administrator. Nevertheless, much of the work previously done by addressing machines is being taken over by the computer, particularly in the fields of listings and envelope-addressing despite the facts that computer usage is probably more expensive and amendements are less easy to put into effect.

6. Photocopying

Photocopying may be defined as ‘the reproduction of an exact copy of an original by the action of light, heat or electrostatic charge’. Despite the use of the word ‘exact’ it must be understood that few office photocopy­ing processes offer the reproduction of coloured originals in colour, but only in terms of black and white.

Within a comparatively short space of time photocopying has become one of the most used aids in the office and before considering the various methods the reasons for its popularity must be examined. There are three significant advantages in the use of photocopying:

1. Accurate copies are produced quickly and, most important, they need no checking because there can be no copying errors, as can occur when duplicating masters are typed. Where only a few copies are required, therefore, it is generally cheaper and quicker to produce them by a suitable photocopying method.
2. Most methods lend themselves to systems work and will produce masters for some types of duplicating.
3. Drawings, graphs and, in some cases, photographs can be copied direct from the original.

The disadvantages of photocopying may be said to include:

1. Except for dyeline (explained later) photocopying is mostly suitable only where a few copies of an original are required, owing to cost. It must be recognised, however, that competition is forcing down the cost per copy and the system of making sliding-scale charges according to the volume of copying done where machines are rented tends to increase the numbers of copies produced. Further, in the field of electrostatic copiers modern developments in plain paper copiers have produced machines that can cope with very long runs and provided the volume of copies is not too large the cost per copy can compare quite favourably with conventional stencil duplicating.
2. The copies produced by some methods may not be permanent, though this depends largely upon correct procedure and subsequent handling.
3. There is a tendency {a) to make copies unnecessarily because it is easy and (b) to use the copier for more copies from an original than is economical, when some forms of duplicating – or even carbon copy­ing – would be cheaper. This is, of course, a human failing rather than a technical one.

7. Photocopying Methods

Photocopying had its origins as long ago as 1839 though it was not developed seriously for office use until after the Second World War. At first all the methods available were based on purely photographic techniques requiring photosensitive paper and wet development. Such methods are the reflex, diffusion transfer and direct positive processes. These have become largely obsolete because of significant disadvantages compared with modern methods. One ‘wet’ method does, however, still retain support: this is dyeline, which lends itself to many applications especially in the field of office systems. As the oldest of the processes in current common use it is fitting that this should be examnined first.

7.1. Dyeline

This was originally used in drawing offices, where it replaced the old ‘blueprint’ and its application to office routines was comparatively slow. It is a cheap method of photocopying but has the drawback that it requires transparent or translucent originals. This in turn means that it can be used to copy only single-sided originals. To overcome the first problem some paper manufacturers have introduced paper that has the appearance of good quality bond, being visually opaque but quite transparent to ultraviolet light, which is the light used for dyeline printing.

7.2. Thermal (or infra-red) copying

Thermal copying is a process that uses heat instead of light to form the copy image, a special heat-sensitive copy paper being employed. It is very rapid (four seconds to produce a copy) and completely dry. The copies are delivered direct and ready for use. Its principal drawback is its inability to copy original images unless they have a carbon or metallic content and it will not reproduce from most colours as they are composed of vegetable pigments or dyes. These include most writing inks, ballpoint pen inks and coloured printing inks. Thus a great range of documents cannot be copied by this process. Other disadvantages are the cost of the special paper and its fragile nature.

7.3. Dual spectrum copying

This process, introduced by the originators of thermal copying, appears to have been developed to overcome the colour-blindness of the thermal method. It is termed ‘dual spectrum’ because it makes use of both ultra-violet and infra-red light.

Its advantage over the thermal process is its sensitivity to all types of image, whatever their nature or colour. However, it is even more expensive than thermal copying and, since it is a two-stage process, it is very much slower. The average copy takes between 30 and 45 seconds. It is,   nevertheless, acceptable to small offices where the copying require­ments are low as the capital outlay for the machine is quite small.

Both thermal and dual spectrum copying are rapidly becoming obso­lete in the face of competition from plain paper copiers. However, they still have their place in small offices where capital cost is an important consideration and copying needs are very light.

7.4. Electrostatic copying

This process is completely different from the methods previously described. Technically it is based on the fact that when a light-sensitive conductor is charged with static electricity the charge can be dissipated by exposure to light in proportion to the intensity of the light falling upon it. The charge remaining will attract ink (technically called a toner, which may be a dry powder or a fluid), so providing a copy image. Though this sounds a lengthy and complicated process the various stages are, in fact, carried out automatically and at electronic speeds. Small machines will produce eight to nine copies per minute whilst the most expensive machines, costing many thousands of pounds, can produce 120 copies per minute. These expensive machines are, in fact, duplicators and are used as such.

The usual term used for the electrostatic process is xerography, after the firm which pioneered the method, but it is important to be aware that electrostatic copying has developed along two different lines. The first, the Xerox and similar machines, uses a selenium drum or plate to receive the static charge and the inked image ultimately formed is transferred from this to the copy paper, which is an ordinary bond paper. Such machines are now commonly known as plain-paper copiers.

The second line of development uses special coated copy paper which, itself, receives the charge and on which the final copy image is formed. These ‘direct’ copiers are now usually called electrostatic copiers even though the electrostatic process is common to both.

The chief advantage of both these methods is that they are fast and dry. Other advantages include the ability to copy colours and, to a limited extent, photographs. There is, theoretically, no limit to the number of copies obtainable from an original because the whole cycle is performed for each and every reproduction. However, in practice rests should be given some machines otherwise they tend to overheat (the same remarks, incidentally, apply to thermal copiers). A further import­ant advantage is that most machines will produce offset-litho masters and with some of the direct method ones the normal copies themselves can be used for short-run offset-litho duplication.

It would be pertinent at this juncture to outline the differences between the plain-paper copiers and the electrostatic machines. The first and, perhaps, the most important distinction for the office administrator on a limited budget is that the capital cost of the electrostatic copier is very much lower than that for its plain-paper counterpart: in fact, the cheapest electrostatic model is less than a quarter of the price of the equivalent plain-paper copier.

On the other hand, the coated copy paper needed for electrostatic machines is considerably dearer than plain paper, and the copies produced, whilst as sharp as plain-paper copies, are much less white, are thicker and less easy to handle. A good plain-paper copy is of excellent quality – good enough, in fact, to be used in place of ordinary typing even where the highest-quality work is required. The electrostatic machines also tend to produce fewer copies per minute than plain-paper copiers, and can in no way reach the phenomenal quantities of the fastest plain-paper copiers.

It must be said, however, that the electrostatic copier, despite its substantially lower capital cost, has become obsolescent and the field is now held by the plain-paper copier, of which there is a very wide choice. Many modern plain-paper copiers offer additional facilities beyond mere copying, among which are double-sided copying, copying in colours other than black, sorting (usually with add-on equipment), enlarging or reducing the copy image and multicopying from one original by simple dialling or keying-in.

8. Photostat and Microfilming

So far only photocopying processes producing a same-size image have been discussed and this is generally what is meant by the term ‘photoco­pying’. However, mention must be made of methods which produce copies of different sizes from the originals.

The best known of these is Photostat, a term loosely used for all kinds of photocopying but properly used only for the special process of making copies mainly of a different size from the original. The Photostat process (Photostat is a trade name belonging to Kodak Limited) entails the use of a camera and a darkroom and is, therefore, expensive in equipment and needs a trained operator. Thus, it is used only for specialist purposes outside the ordinary run of office copying. The process is entirely photographic, using paper negative materials, but much of the opera­tional procedure is automatic, unlike normal photography.

The second process is known as microfilming and, again, requires special, expensive apparatus including a camera and viewing equipment.

Considerable reduction in copy size is the aim here, and as it is used mainly in filing procedures will be discussed under that heading.

Before leaving this topic mention must be made of a trend in the design of plain-paper copiers. A feature now available is the ability to provide copies of a reduced size from the original. The object is to unify the sizes of copies for filing so that over-size originals can be copied to a size suitable for standard filing arrangements. This can be a useful feature, as oversize papers do frequently pose filing problems. It should be mentioned that certain Xerox machines have always been available that will enlarge or reduce copies, but these are special-purpose machines far too sophisticated for ordinary office use, whereas the trend mentioned concerns office machines specifically, the equipment being no more complicated than the usual form.

9. Selecting a Machine

There are no hard and fast rules in selecting photocopying machines but regard must be paid, as always, to the work the machine is intended for. Some questions may be put, such as:

1. Is image quality important?
2. Will multiple copies be required?
3. Is it necessary to copy colours?
4. Will any control be possible over the type of image to be copied or will copies be required of anything that comes?
5. Will only the occasional copy be required or will hundreds or more a week be wanted?
6. Will the photocopying be centralised or distributed about the pre­mises?
7. Is it intended to fit photocopying into a system?

10. Applications of Photocopiers

Photocopying finds itself playing roles which were not imagined some years ago and thus very careful consideration must be given to machine selection. A few applications by way of illustration may be helpful:

1. Dyeline used to produce month-end statements of account from translucent machine ledger cards. Benefits are less paper to file during the month and no necessity to head up statements. The latter advantage is a particular saving where balanced-off accounts do not ‘move’ during the month.
2. Almost any method used to copy incoming letters which need attention by two or more departments, so that each department can have sight of the communication at once instead of waiting for the physical circulation of the original. Benefit is that queries are more quickly dealt with.
3. The production of offset-litho plates for duplication of reports and so on, so avoiding the expense of retyping.
4. Using the strip index method, producing price lists where there are frequent price changes. Strips are changed when required and photo­copied, either to produce translucent masters for dyeline, or offset- litho plates for duplicating.
5. The production of offset-litho plates for running off leaflets and brochures, where these have had originals prepared by one of the suitable typewriters already discussed in Chapter 8, possibly in conjunction with a photo-composing machine and, perhaps, with photographic inserts.
6. As with some stencil duplicators, some photocopiers permit the selective reproduction of matter from a master, using what are called overlay devices. This allows a common master to be used to produce different forms with some common content. It is particularly useful for those engaged in the export trade where the use of aligned forms, as they are called, allows advantage to be taken of these devices.

These are only a few of the applications to which photocopying has been put and the choice of machine or process will depend very largely upon the kind of applications envisaged.

Source: Eyre E. C. (1989), Office Administration, Palgrave Macmillan.