Responsibilities to respondents as ethical issues of the questionnaires

1. The introduction What is said in the introduction to an interview is crucial in securing the cooperation of respondents. This is true for both interviewer-adminis­tered surveys and self-completion studies. From an ethical standpoint the introduction should include: the name of the organization conducting the study;* the broad subject area; whether the subject area

Responsibilities to clients as ethical issues of the questionnaires

Ethical behaviour does not just extend to the relationship between ques­tionnaire writer and respondent, however. The questionnaire writer also has a responsibility to behave ethically towards the client. Much has been written in previous chapters about designing questions that are unbiased and strive to capture the best and most accurate data. This is not

Response bias of questionnaire survey

No matter how carefully the questionnaire writer constructs the ques­tions, the data collected are only as accurate as the responses that are elicited. Respondents give inaccurate answers for a number of different reasons. They give inaccurate answers both consciously for reasons of their own, and also without any conscious realization that the informa­tion they

1 Comments

Social desirability bias of questionnaire survey

Social desirability bias (SDB) arises because respondents like to appear to be other than they are. This can occur consciously, because respondents want to manage the impression that they are giving of themselves in terms of social responsibility, or subconsciously, because they believe themselves to be other than they are, possibly a form of

Dealing with SDB (Social desirability bias) of questionnaire survey

When writing the questionnaire care must be taken to identify question areas that are possible sources of SDB. If the questions ask about attitudes or behaviour on any subject that has a social responsibility component, then consideration should be given to how best to minimize any possible bias. Simply asking respondents to be honest

Determining whether SDB (Social desirability bias) exists in the questionnaire survey

It can be difficult to determine whether or not the responses to a question have been influenced by SDB. 1. Matched cells One approach to determining whether or not there is a problem is to use one of the techniques described above and to have part of the sample as a control cell that

Client presence in the international questionnaire surveys

If you are conducting a multinational study, then it is possible that the commissioning organization, or client, has a presence in most if not all of the countries that are to be covered. However, the extent and expertise of that presence may differ between countries, depending on the size and the nature of their

Common or tailored approaches to the international questionnaire surveys

When faced with the prospect of conducting a study across a number of countries the first issue is whether to write a separate questionnaire for each country or a single questionnaire that varies only on items such as brand lists. This can only be answered by examining the objectives of the study and the

Translating the questionnaire

Accurate translations are, of course, essential. But an accurate translation is not simply one that is literally accurate. Translations must be carried out sensitively so that meanings, shades of meaning and nuances are accurately retained. Possibly the most difficult to translate are brand image and positioning statements and attitude dimensions. There may be fine

1 Comments

Demographic data in the international questionnaire surveys

One area that often causes difficulty is the classification of demographic data. Many countries subscribe to a social-grade classification system, which uses a grouping system described as A, B, etc. There the similarity often ends, with the number of groups and their definitions differing widely. The UK has a six-grade system (A, B, C1,

Cultural response differences in the international questionnaire surveys

In some cultures, people are more prepared to criticize than in others. In India, for example, it is considered rude to be critical of someone else’s work. Responses to rating scales therefore tend to be more positive than in many other countries. Within Europe, as a rule people in Latin coun­tries will tend to

Laying out the questionnaire in the international surveys

Where paper questionnaires are to be used the issue arises of how differ­ences between the layouts can be minimized. This is generally desirable if the questionnaire is broadly common to all countries. 1. Layout conventions However, it is also important that local agencies use their own layout conventions where these differ. Mistakes are more

The Need for Research Synthesis in the Social Sciences

Isaac Newton is known to have humbly explained his success: “If I have seen further it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants” (1675; from Columbia World of Quotations, 1996). Although the history of science suggests that Newton may have been as likely to kick his fellow scientists down as he was to

Basic Terminology in Meta-Analysis

Before further discussing meta-analysis, it is useful to clarify some relevant terminology. One clarification involves the distinction of meta-analysis from primary or secondary analysis. The second clarification involves terminology of meta-analysis within the superordinate category of a literature review. 1. Meta-Analysis versus Primary or Secondary Analysis The first piece of terminology to clarify are

A Brief History of Meta-Analysis

In this section, I briefly outline the history of meta-analysis. My goal is not to be exhaustive in detailing this history (for more extensive treatments, see Chalmers, Hedges, & Cooper, 2002, Hedges, 1992, and Olkin, 1990; for a his­tory intended for laypersons, see Hunt, 1997). Instead, I only hope to provide a basic overview

The Scientific Process of Research Synthesis

Given the importance of research syntheses, including meta-analyses, to the progression of science, it is critical to follow scientific standards in their preparation. Most scientists are well trained in methods and data-analytic techniques to ensure objective and valid conclusions in primary research, yet methods and data-analytic techniques for research synthesis are less well known.

Identifying Goals and Research Questions for Meta-Analysis

In providing a taxonomy of literature reviews (see Chapter 1), Cooper (1988, 2009a) identified the goals of a review to be one of the dimensions on which reviews differ. Cooper identified integration (including drawing generaliza­tions, reconciling conflicts, and identifying links between theories of dis­ciplines), criticism, and identification of central issues as general goals of

The Limits of Primary Research and the Limits of Meta-Analytic Synthesis

Perhaps no statement is more true, and humbling, than this offered as the opening of Harris Cooper’s editorial in Psychological Bulletin (and likely stated in similar words by many others): “Scientists have yet to conduct the flawless experiment” (Cooper, 2003, p. 3). I would extend this conclusion further to point out that no scientist

Critiques of Meta-Analysis: When Are They Valid and When Are They Not?

As I outlined in Chapter 1, attention to meta-analysis emerged in large part with the attention received by Smith and Glass’s (1977) meta-analysis of psy­chotherapy research (though others developed techniques of meta-analysis at about the same time; e.g., Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978; Schmidt & Hunter, 1977). The controversial nature of this meta-analysis drew criticisms,

2.4 Practical Matters: The Reciprocal Relation between Planning and Conducting a Meta-Analysis

My placement of this chapter on identifying research questions for meta­analysis before chapters on actually performing a meta-analysis is meant to correspond to the order you would follow in approaching this endeavor. As with primary research, you want to know your goals and research questions, as well as potential limitations and critiques, of your

1 Comments