Office Typewriters

1. Standard Typewriters

The normal type of machine is the standard typewriter, sometimes referred to as a manual machine, where the typist’s fingers provide the motive power to operate the typebars and a clockwork mechanism and escapement produce lateral movement of the carriage. The usual machine of this type has an 11 or 13 in. carriage (28 or 33 cm) and is equipped with pica or elite type. The office manager should be aware of the most important features of these machines which are now examined.

1.1. Carriage

This is the moving part of the machine into which the paper is inserted, and the length is usually designated by the maximum width of paper it will accept: thus the standard 11 in. carriage mentioned above will accept a sheet of paper 11 in. wide but in most cases cannot type this complete width. Carriages are available up to 27 in. long, and in some makes even 36 in., and these are usual for special work such as typing tables of statistics, analyses, balance sheets and the like. However, it must be remembered that a long carriage is more tiring for the typist to use than a short one, and if the need to type on wide paper is only occasional (say a monthly cost analysis) then it is advisable to have a machine with the facility of interchangeable carriages, which are available from a limited number of manufacturers. These allow the carriage to be changed without tools, or at most with the use of a screwdriver, for work of different kinds, and incomplete work does not have to be withdrawn when making the change. Normally, the longest suitable carriage is 18 in. (45 cm) which will accommodate brief paper – wide enough for the majority of purposes.

1.2. Type styles

All machines are available with a variety of typefaces, though commonly pica or elite are used. Pica is a roman style with serifs giving 10 letters to the horizontal inch and was once the most popular. However, the elite typeface is now as popular, producing 12 letters to the horizontal inch and is the same design as pica. The number of characters to the inch quoted are for British and American-made machines. A large number of Continental and Japanese machines are now marketed and some of these give fewer characters to the inch. e.g. 11 for elite: this may be significant if it is required to match an existing machine with another of different manufacture. Strictly speaking, the terms pica and elite refer to the number of characters per inch produced (properly called the ‘pitch’) but it is commonly accepted that unless otherwise qualified they indicate the roman style.

Many alternative type styles are available and may be used for special purposes. Very careful thought must go into the choice of a type style and the purpose for which it is required. For example, although type faces based on italics are attractive for short letters, especially personal correspondence, work in this style becomes irritating to read when there are many pages of it. Similarly, a shaded face type is not really suitable for stencil cutting and it also reduces the number of clear carbon copies obtainable.

The number of characters to the horizontal inch (the pitch) varies according to the size and style of the type face, but single-line vertical spacing is normally six lines to the inch unless modified to special order.

1.3. Keyboards

There is a standard arrangements of letters, figures and most signs for the British keyboard. It appears to be an illogical arrangement and attempts have been made from time to time to rationalise it but without much success: there are just too many touch typists (those who type by memory of key positions and not by sight) who would have to relearn the new letter positions.

The layout of the characters is not sacrosanct, however, and changes can be made to order where circumstances demand. Even special characters such as a company’s monogram, provided it takes only one letter space, can be included, as can mathematical symbols and the like. The only proviso is that no additional keys can be fitted and so where special characters are required some other standard ones must be sacrificed.

It must also be mentioned that although the basic keyboard is standard (namely letters and figures 2 to 9) there are variations between machines on the provision, omission and positions of such other characters as the figure 1, figure 0, signs + , * and ?, certain fractions and so on. This should be borne in mind by the office administrator when replacing machines because such variations can cause a temporary increase in typing errors with the consequent result of decreased effective output.

Machines with keyboards for practically every language in the world are also available from most makers and where the majority of the typewriting will be in a particular tongue then the relevant keyboard should be provided. However, where only the occasional letter will be typed in a foreign language it is usually sufficient to have the necessary key changes on an English keyboard. For example, for the occasional typing of French a standard English keyboard with the necessary key changes to provide accents is all that is needed. In such cases the accents will be fitted to ‘dead’ keys (i.e. keys that have been disengaged from the escapement mechanism) so that when the accent key is struck the carriage remains stationary, allowing the accented letter to be typed beneath it.

1.4. Tabulators

All standard typewriters are fitted with a tabulator, a device which enables the operator to select positions across the paper at which the carriage will stop automatically for the insertion of information. This makes the typing of columns of names or words quick and easy, ensuring that all columns start exactly in vertical line. With a standard tabulator, however, lining up is done from the left (the point at which the tabulator stop is set) and whilst this is perfectly in order for columns of words and names, for figures, which have to be lined up from the right, this is a little inconvenient, requiring additional manipulation of the space bar and/or backspacer, frequently resulting in figures being out of line. To over­come this difficulty, and to speed operation, a decimal tabulator is available which ensures the correct placing of figures under each other. In this case, instead of the tabulator being operated from a single bar or key there is a series of suitably marked keys for the tabulating function which will cause the carriage to stop in the units position, the tens position, the hundreds position and so on, within the required column, simply by setting the tabulator stop to the units position and pressing the appropriate tabulator key. This type of tabulator is invaluable where there is a lot of figure work to be typed, as in the statistics office or the accounts office. When required the tabulator can be used in the normal fashion by operating the units key only.

1.5. Carbon copies

It is impossible to lay down a firm rule about the number of legible carbon copies that can be obtained from a standard typewriter, though the figures of six to ten are often mentioned. The actual number depends upon many factors including the thickness of the paper, the weight of the carbon paper, the hardness of the platen, the size and style of the type (a large fine-cut type giving more copies than a small shaded-face one), the weight of touch of the typist and, last but not least, what is considered to be acceptable. More than ten copies, however, are certainly unusual.

1.6. Other features

Various makers include special features on their machines, some of which may be helpful, some helpful when they work but highly incon­venient when they fail, and some which appear to have little practical value. Such devices include automatic margins (manual setting should also be available for safety’s sake), rapid paper feeds, end-of-paper indicators (very helpful) and very many others. A choice of colours is also offered in some instances and one or two makers produce machines with proportional spacing (that is, machines that allow different spaces per letter according to its width). The latter machines also allow the operator to justify the right-hand margins – that is, to produce right- hand margins that are even all the way down. The advantages of both features, except in very special circumstances, can be questioned: the proportional spacing introduces problems when corrections have to be made and the justifying of right-hand margins is very time-consuming.

Some typewriters have detachable platens and these are very desirable when the machine is going to be used frequently for cutting stencils. The chemicals in stencil skins have a deleterious effect on rubber compounds and it is a safety precaution to change the platen for one made of a cork composition when preparing stencils, where this is possible.

2. Electric Typewriters

Whereas a standard typewriter requires the typist to provide the energy to drive the typebars and carriage return, with an electric machine this is done by electric power and all the typist has to do is to touch the necessary keys gently. This gives rise to several advantages.

First, the touch is extremely light. This reduces fatigue considerably and enables the typist to maintain a high rate of output throughout the day: one maker states that the reduction of fatigue results in a 20 per cent greater output over a standard typewriter. Actual typewriting speed depends, of course, very largely upon the typist’s proficiency but there is also some saving in such operations as carriage return which, on a manual machine, requires the hand to leave the keyboard momentarily and so interrupts keystroking; this is not necessary on an electric typewriter.

Second, because of the electro-mechanical operation, the impact of the type on to the paper in a properly adjusted machine is perfectly even, thus giving a very good appearance to the finished work: this is not always so with a standard machine. This evenness of impact also produces high-quality masters for the various duplicating processes.

Third, it is possible to control the typing pressure within very wide limits, which allows a very great number of carbon copies to be taken at one typing if required. In fact it is possible, using very lightweight paper and carbons, to obtain 20 copies, though rather less than this is the general rule.

Like their standard counterparts, electric typewriters are available in many type styles and carriage lengths. Very fine work indeed is possible on these machines and using one of the more expensive models with shaded-face type, proportional letter spacing and justified margins, and employing a special ribbon, typing indistinguishable from print can be produced (though whether this is the function of a typewriter in normal circumstances is a matter of opinion).

There are, of course, certain drawbacks to electric typewriters. They are generally speaking more than twice the price of manual machines. Most of them are larger and much heavier than an ordinary typewriter and they must be used near an electric point. Power failure puts them out of action and they are more subject to mechanical trouble. Depreciation is, naturally, inclined to be heavy and repairs are likely to be costly compared with standard machines.

The electric machines so far discussed are those with a standard type-well or basket, with the characters on type bars that move up and strike the paper in the moving carriage. A more recent introduction is the so-called golf-ball typewriter which is now marketed by several manufac­turers. This type of machine uses a spherical typing head about the size of a golf ball (hence the name) that has embossed on its surface all the necessary typing characters, instead of a basket of type bars, and itself moves along the line against a fixed carriage. When a key is pressed the typing head turns and tilts so that the selected character will strike the paper.

The advantages of this method are that it is faster in operation (claimed maximum speed 180 words per minute, far beyond the fastest typist’s capability), the type heads are interchangeable so that different types styles can be used if required, even within the same typed page, and as the carriage is fixed and so does not travel beyond the body limits of the machine less space is required on the desk for its operation.

The golf-ball is now being rapidly superseded by an even more recent innovation – the print wheel, or type wheel, element (more popularly known as the daisy wheel), which can provide even faster typing than the golf-ball machines; up to 300 words per minute is the claim. The characters are embossed on the spokes of the print wheel, which resembles the flower head of a daisy, hence the term daisy wheel. These print wheels are easily interchangeable, thus providing a variety of type styles at will. They are also claimed to be quieter than other type mechanisms, and like the golf-ball machine the carriage is fixed. In order to take advantage of the speed of this new type element the typewriters to which they are fitted employ a high proportion of electronic com­ponents and are usually referred to as electronic typewriters.

Naturally it is impossible to expect human typists to attain the very high speeds possible with both the golf-ball and the daisy-wheel electric typewriters and, in fact, they have been developed for use with automatic typing and word processing.

3. Electronic Typewriters

Electronic typewriters are becoming more and more popular and increas­ingly are offering more and more facilities. Some of these features are of immense help to the operator and some are not likely to be used a great deal, so as with the selection of all office machines a detailed analysis of actual requirements is necessary before acquisition. Among the many features offered are:

1. Interchangeable type styles. Where used, the daisy-wheel printing element can easily be changed for a different one but the development of the dot-matrix printer, incorporated in some machines, allows the facility of using different type faces without changing the printing head. This method creates characters by forming them of minute dots, is faster than the daisy wheel but of not quite such good quality print.
2. Variable type pitch, that is, the number of characters per inch. Combined with the possibility of changing type styles, this feature enables the production of, among other things, forms, display ma­terial and more interestingly presented reports.
3. Visual character display. This feature may display only a few cha­racters, say 20, up to a full A4 page depending upon the machine. The operator is thus able to see and correct the text before it is typed.
4. Inbuilt correction facilities. This feature when used in conjunction with a visual display permits the uninterrupted typing of error-free work.
5. This may consist of anything from a small buffer store of a few characters to a memory with the ability to hold many thousands of characters. Both retain keyed-in information preparatory to printing but, of course, the larger memories can be used to store considerable quantities of frequently used matter for future use to avoid repeated keying-in.
6. Computer interface. Some machines permit interface with a computer using an external interface device.

7. Other useful features, depending upon requirements, are automatic underlining, automatic margin justification (that is, making right- hand margins straight and in line), automatic centring and automatic carriage return (sometimes referred to as ‘wrap round’).
8. The very great speeds attainable with these machines.

4. Automatic Typewriters

The introduction of automatic typewriters has led to a considerable increase in the speed of the typing service where repeated typing of standard matter is required. Basically, automatic typewriters operate on the principle of a prepared master which is used to activate the typewriter to produce the required work.

The basic automatic typewriter is a normal electric typewriter fitted with a punching and reading device. A normal typed copy is produced as the paper tape is being punched and thus the accuracy of the tape can be checked visually during production. If the typist makes an error it cannot be erased so a skip signal is punched into the tape, which will cause the eror to be omitted on transcription, and then the correction is inserted. This type of machine, whilst still widely used, has been rendered largely obsolescent by versions using magnetic master materials of one kind or another, and even these are giving way to text processors and word processors as such machines become more and more versatile.

Machines employing separate external masters such as punched paper tape or magnetic cards are employed to a considerable extent in systems work. An example is a ^ales order/invoicing procedure where fixed information, such as customers’ names and addresses, shipping instruc­tions, product descriptions and the like, is held on file in the form of short lengths of punched paper tape or sets of master cards. As orders are received the relevant filed information is pulled and fed into the automatic typewriter which is programmed to stop at the required points for the operator to insert variable data by manual typing – such details as quantities, prices and extensions. This procedure saves much time as the fixed data does not need checking and is typed out at the maximum speed applicable to the machine in use.

In more sophisticated systems a calculator can be incorporated in the automatic typewriter, or linked to it, so that calculations such as extensions can be worked out automatically and typed in by the machine itself. This system also lends itself to integrated data processing, because the automatic typewriter can simultaneously produce a complete tape for input to a computer.

With the increasing sophistication of electronic typewriters and word processors automatic typewriters are now virtually obsolete and would not be a recommended choice for the modern office administrator.

5. Interchangeable Type

Typewriters with interchangeable type have a specialised application in many organisations and are, in fact, used as print-composing machines. Their attraction is that they are operated by standard typing techniques and so typists need no special training. Further, they can be and are used equally well for normal typing. Many organisations now do the major part of their own printing using this kind of typewriter and an offset-litho duplicator. Quite elaborate printing jobs can now be carried out in the office without recourse to conventional printing with a consequent saving of cost and with greater control over delivery times. If a photo­composing machine is added to the equipment then there is virtually no limit to what can be produced. This particular machine, by photographic means, produces ‘type’ in very many styles but of larger sizes than can be produced by the typewriter, and together they form what might be called a complete type-composing unit: in fact, the procedure is known as ‘cold-type composing’. The advant of the electronic typewriter has undoubtedly greatly increased the facility of in-house print preparation.

6. Selecting a Typewriter

The very wide range of machines, from relatively simple manual ones to the highly versatile electronic memory models, makes selecting a typewriter a daunting task for the office administrator. However, the choice of a typewriter is governed by the same factors that govern the choice of any office machine – namely, the work to be done on it and its expected advantages compared to what it is going to replace. This will govern the length of carriage, the style of the type, the kind of tabulator, whether it should be a standard machine, simple electronic or advanced electronic and so on.

There are, however, other considerations that may influence a buyer apart from the basically practical. The first of these is the question of what makes of machines are already installed. Whilst it would be unwise to continue to purchase a make of typewriter that has proved unsatisfac­tory in service, generally speaking where a large number of machines of one particular make are in use it is a sound policy to continue to buy such machines because this makes the problems of maintenance and interchange so much easier. Second, the question as to whether the intending operators like the machine, particularly its touch, is important: typists will produce more and better work on machines with which they are happy than on those which are disliked for one reason or another. Third, the question of maintenance and availability of spares is of utmost importance, especially if a comparatively unknown machine is under review. Finally, there is the question of the prestige of the typist. It is said that it is easier to recruit and keep proficient typists if new machines are provided and the provision of an electric or advanced electronic typewriter in many cases gives the user status.

Nothing has been said under this heading about cost. In view of the life expected from a typewriter, and the fact that there is very little difference in the prices of the various reputable makes, this factor is really of secondary consideration, except in the case of electric and electronic typewriters. Here the most expensive machine can be many times the cost of the cheapest one, and in view of the hard work these machines are called upon to do in some procedures, consideration of price against robustness may be of importance.

7. Speeding up the Typing Function

The costs of providing office services have risen dramatically and the typing function is no exception. If steps are taken to speed up the typing function and so increase productivity then savings in costs can be made. Two methods of doing this are the establishment of a typing pool and the use of continuous stationery.

7.1. Typing pools

Where the typing work is carried out departmentally it is inevitable that the volume of work to be performed will be uneven, but equally certainly it will be the common experience that the peak loads in one department will coincide with the slack periods in another. Consequently if the typing function is centralised then work can be spread more evenly and time and machines used most economically. There are many variations of the typing pool, but the three main systems are:

1. All copy-typing pooled, shorthand-typing remaining on a depart­mental basis.
2. All copy-typing and shorthand-typing pooled.
3. All copy-typing pooled, but shorthand-typing sectionalised so that one group of stenographers serves only a few designated departments (which is a compromise between 1 and 2).

The advantages to be derived from the typing pool may be given as follows:

1. The number of typists is kept to a minimum.
2. The number of machines is kept to a minimum as a consequence.
3. Consequent upon 1 and 2 there is an economy of space and economy in the provision of such services as heating and lighting.
4. The supervision of the typing function is improved.
5. The installation of work measurement is facilitated.
6. Centralised dictation is easily installed.
7. The training of staff in the typing function is facilitated.

The disadvantages attendant upon the setting up of a typing pool are:

1. Typing pools are unpopular with typists who are not accustomed to this arrangement. This is particularly evident with existing staff when a changeover is made from departmental typing to a typing pool.
2. There is often a loss of personal contact between the typist doing the work and the executive requiring it.
3. Frequently the typists do not acquire an intimate knowledge of any particular department’s day-to-day work and problems and this results in an increase in queries by the typists.
4. The pool supervisor can experience difficulties in establishing work priorities, which leads to possible delays in important work.
5. There is an encouragement to gossip, though this can be minimised by effective supervision.
6. There is often a tendency to a higher staff turnover.

It is not possible to generalise on the wisdom of introducing typing pools, although such centralisation is becoming the common practice; so much depends upon the type of work required to be produced. Where the work is of a general nature with no special difficulties then the pool can be most effective. Where the work is highly technical and complex, or where it is largely confidential, a personal or departmental service is to be preferred.

As with other cases of centralisation frequently the pool has to be backed up with a departmental service to ensure maximum efficiency.

7.2. Continuous stationery

Typists’ time is truly productive only when they are actually typing, and the time taken to assemble packs of forms, interleave with carbons and feed them into the machines is really unproductive even if necessary. If this series of operations can be avoided or minimised then output will be increased. Particularly is this so if each form requires only very few lines of typing because the assembly and feeding operations take the same amount of time irrespective of the quantity of typing on the page. By the use of continuous stationery the handling of individual packs of forms is avoided.

Continuous stationery consists of forms produced on a continuous strip of paper and, normally, separated by perforations. Where several copies are required these are provided for by having the necessary number of layers of paper combined with the top copy.

Three basic types of continuous stationery are available, as follows:

1. These are merely rolls of plain paper, for single or multiple copies as required. Their normal use is in teleprinters or similar machines and as in such cases the length of typed matter varies they are not normally perforated. The machines using paper rolls are equipped with some form of cutting edge against which the paper or message can be torn off. Narrow, gummed paper is frequently used in this fashion for producing labels on typewriters, when the strips are usually perforated.
2. In this type the forms are folded back and forward on each other at the perforations, in concertina fashion, to form a flat pack. This is probably the most popular type for use on the typewriter, as well as other machines, particularly as the copies can be of various colours for coding purposes.
3. In this type a wide sheet of paper is folded vertically several times, concertina fashion, to form the various copy forms, and then folded horizontally at the separating perforations, again concertina fashion, to produce a flat pack as with interfold. In this method, of course, all copies have to be the same colour paper but colour coding can be achieved by different colour printing for the different copy forms. To aid separation of the copies there are perforations down the vertical folds.

Continuous stationery is held in the typewriter by various devices fitted to the machine, of which there are many, and the forms are fed round the typewriter platen continuously one by one with very little interruption of the typing activity. As each form is typed it is torn off.

Copying is frequently done by means of one-time carbon paper which, as the name suggests, consists of very thin carbon paper designed to be used once only. This is interleaved between the forms in a continuous strip when the stationery is produced. It is a simple method but suffers from two objections – it is relatively expensive and the need to decollate is time-consuming and a dirty operation.

Other means of producing copies have, therefore, been devised: namely, carbon backing, where the backs of the forms are actually coated with carbon, and carbonless copy papers. There are two varieties of the latter. With one, the older method, special papers with mating chemical coatings are employed, pressure activating the chemical reac­tion to produce the copy image. These are commonly known as NCR papers. With the second the paper is impregnated with minute pods of ink which burst to form an image when the paper is subject to pressure.

The chief advantage of using continuous stationery is greater output. As an example, it is estimated that its use for a six-form set with 10 lines of typing saves about 50 per cent of a typist’s time over using individual invoice sets. The amount of saving is inversely proportional to the amount of typing per form; the fewer the lines the greater the saving because when single form sets are used a considerable amount of time is consumed in collating the copy forms (and possibly carbon paper) and feeding them into the typewriter and withdrawing them. In this connec­tion, of course, a certain amount of collating time can be saved with individual form sets if they are padded into sets.

The disadvantages of continuous stationery include a tendency to poor registration of copy forms (overcome in various ways such as sprocket feeds or stapled edges) and the need for special stationery which puts the user in the hands of the suppliers in regard to delivery and price. With regard to prices, these are usually fair in comparison with other forms of stationery when reputable makers are dealt with, but unavoidable delays in delivery can have unfortunate consequences with regard to the office procedures. As with other forms of multiple-part sets, care must be taken that the number of copies expected is not such that the bottom ones are too faint to be easily legible, given the copying method adopted.

Source: Eyre E. C. (1989), Office Administration, Palgrave Macmillan.