Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument in quantitative research

There are a number of ways of determining the reliability of an instrument and these can be classified as either external or internal consistency procedures. 1. External consistency procedures External consistency procedures compare findings from two independent processes of data collection with each other as a means of verifying the reliability of the measure.

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Validity and reliability in qualitative research

One of the areas of difference between quantitative and qualitative research is in the use of and the importance given to the concepts of validity and reliability. The debate centres on whether or not, given the framework of qualitative research, these concepts can or even should be applied in qualitative research. As you know,

The differences between sampling in quantitative and qualitative research

The selection of a sample in quantitative and qualitative research is guided by two opposing philosophies. In quantitative research you attempt to select a sample in such a way that it is unbiased and represents the population from where it is selected. In qualitative research, number considerations may influence the selection of a sample

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Sampling in quantitative research

1. The concept of sampling Let us take a very simple example to explain the concept of sampling. Suppose you want to estimate the average age of the students in your class. There are two ways of doing this. The first method is to contact all students in the class, find out their ages,

Sampling in qualitative research

As the main aim in qualitative enquiries is to explore the diversity, sample size and sampling strategy do not play a significant role in the selection of a sample. If selected carefully, diversity can be extensively and accurately described on the basis of information obtained even from one individual. All non-probability sampling designs —

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The research proposal in quantitative and qualitative research

All research endeavours, in both qualitative and quantitative research, in every academic and professional field are preceded by a research proposal. It informs your academic supervisor or potential research contract provider about your conceptualisation of the total research process that you propose to undertake so that they can examine its validity and appropriateness. In

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Contents of a research proposal

A research proposal should contain the following information about your study: an introduction, including a brief literature review; theoretical framework that underpins your study; conceptual framework which constitutes the basis of your study; objectives or research questions of your study; hypotheses to be tested, if applicable; study design that you are proposing to adopt;

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Work schedule in management research

You must set yourself dates as you need to complete the research within a certain time-frame. List the various operational steps you need to undertake and indicate against each the date by which you aim to complete that task. Remember to keep some time towards the end as a ‘cushion’ in case the research

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Ethics: the concept in management research

All professions are guided by a code of ethics that has evolved over the years to accommodate the changing ethos, values, needs and expectations of those who hold a stake in the profes­sions. Some professions are more advanced than others in terms of the level of development of their code of ethics. Some have

Stakeholders in research

There are many stakeholders in research, whether it is quantitative or qualitative. It is important to look at ethical issues in relation to each of them. The various stakeholders in a research activity are: the research participants or subjects; the researcher; the funding body. Who should be considered as a research participant varies from

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Ethical issues to consider concerning research participants

There are many ethical issues to consider in relation to the participants of a research activity. 1. Collecting information One could ask: why should a respondent give any information to a researcher? What right does a researcher have to knock at someone’s door or to send out a questionnaire? Is it ethical to disturb

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Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher

1. Avoiding bias Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is different from subjectivity. Subjectivity, as mentioned earlier, is related to your educational background, training and competence in research, and your philosophical perspective. Bias is a deliberate attempt either to hide what you have found in your study, or to highlight

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Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation

1. Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation Most research in the social sciences is carried out using funds provided by sponsoring organi­sations for a specific purpose. The funds may be given to develop a programme or evaluate it; to examine its effectiveness and efficiency; to study the impact of a policy; to test a

Data processing in quantitative studies

1. Editing Irrespective of the method of data collection, the information collected is called raw data or simply data. The first step in processing your data is to ensure that the data is ‘clean’ — that is, free from inconsistencies and incompleteness. This process of ‘cleaning’ is called editing. Editing consists of scrutinising the

Data processing in qualitative studies

How you process and analyse data in a qualitative study depends upon how you plan to com­municate the findings. Broadly, there are three ways in which you can write about your find­ings in qualitative research: (1) developing a narrative to describe a situation, episode, event or instance; (2) identifying the main themes that emerge

The role of statistics in research

The role of statistics in research is sometimes exaggerated. Statistics have a role only when you have collected the required information, adhering to the requirements of each operational step of the research process. Once data is collected you encounter two questions: How do i organise this data to understand it? What does the data

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Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data

Having analysed the data that you collected through either quantitative or qualitative method(s), the next task is to present your findings to your readers. The main purpose of using data display techniques is to make the findings easy and clear to understand, and to provide extensive and comprehensive information in a succinct and effective

Writing a research report

The last step in the research process is writing the research report. Each step of the process is important for a valid study, as negligence at any stage will affect the quality of not just that part but the whole study. In a way, this last step is the most crucial as it is

Developing an outline of the research report

Before you start writing your report, it is good practice to develop an outline (‘chapterisa- tion’). This means deciding how you are going to divide your report into different chapters and planning what will be written in each one. In developing chapterisation, the subobjectives of your study or the major significant themes that emerged

Writing about a variable in the research report

Having developed a chapter outline, the next step is to start writing. Though the way researchers organise their writing is extremely individualised, the following guidelines and format may prove helpful for beginners. When writing about the information obtained in response to a question (variable), write as if you were providing answers to the following