Observation Methods – Definition, Types, Examples, Advantages

The observation method is described as a method to observe and describe the behavior of a subject. As the name suggests, it is a way of collecting relevant information and data by observing. It is also referred to as a participatory study because the researcher has to establish a link with the respondent and for this has to immerse himself in the same setting as theirs. Only then can he use the observation method to record and take notes.

Meaning and examples

Observation method is used in cases where you want to avoid an error that can be a result of bias during evaluation and interpretation processes. It is a way to obtain objective data by watching a participant and recording it for analysis at a later stage.

A researcher can use the observation method in a Montessori school and record the behavior of the children at a young age. Are the children comfortable sharing their tiffin at such an early age will make a good study for the researcher? In this example, the researcher can observe and record the details objectively. Observation data collection method is associated with a few ethical issues as it needs the full consent of a research participant.

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The uses of observation as research method

The most general use of observation in research is exploratory, as it is in real life. When we take up a new job, enter university,

Observation and self-report: similarities and Differences

Both self-report (as in questionnaires and interviews) and observation techniques can differ in their degree of struc­ture. The first of these may involve short, prescriptive

Introduction to observation

Observation has one overpowering claim to validity: it deals not with what people say they do but what they actually do – to the extent

Event sampling in Structured observation

1. Event sampling Event sampling is used when the behaviour of interest is discontinuous and low frequency, where you would miss the events if you

Structured observation in practice

For the moment the terms structured, detached and non­participant are used almost interchangeably: that is not quite correct (see page 19) but sufficiently so to

Observation in multi-method research

In the same way that surveys can give the bigger picture within which more in-depth interviews are nested, so can observation provide a wider descriptive

Unstructured Observation: The Rise of Ethnography Method

Observation can vary in its degree of structure – how far the researchers’ approach is pre-formed, in the sense of know­ing what they want to

Observation as an Experimental Method

We commonly talk of ‘experimenting’ with things – whether it is a new multi-function mobile phone or an elaborate recipe culled from a magazine –

Semi-structured Observation in training, teaching and learning

1. Observation in training In a sense we are all ‘disabled’ when it comes to operating an unfamiliar and relatively complicated piece of equipment: the

Semi-structured Observation Method

If observation is a primary technique of real-world social research one can be forgiven for thinking that structured observation, with its ‘count’ emphasis and fragmented

Validating observation sampling

In survey research a sample of the population (however defined) is taken because it is much more economical to do so. A ‘valid’ – i.e.

Time sampling in Structured Observation

This is also known as interval sampling because you observe for a specified duration at specified intervals – like taking a succession of snapshots, an

Ethnographic collaboration with members of the ‘culture’ being studied

Human research, even of the culturally sensitive variety, can be seen as something done to people, the passive recipients of the researcher’s attention. But perhaps

The use of video

Video might seem to get round the issue of the process of selection which is self-evident in still photographs. Certainly continuous filming of a sequence

Photographic sequences as a structured narrative

Chapter 2 described how I first observed and recorded interaction between members of the public and Ian in Glasgow’s Argyle Street. As I did so

Text and images in Visual Ethnography

1. Text and images This discursive introduction in what is intended to be a practical book is because of the need to draw back from

Visual Ethnography Method

It seems obvious: if you want to describe a culture, making your account vivid and ‘real’, what more direct method could there be than the

Process of observation methodology

This chapter is written ‘as it happened’ so that much of it has an episodic quality. The chronological form of presentation also demonstrates the nature

The Limitations of Observation Method

In Chapter 8 we considered the role of self-observation as a research method in its own right, particularly direct access to ‘internal’ events, though these

Ethical Dilemmas of Observation Method

How would you feel about being observed systematically, whether for research or any other purpose? There is an intuitive, hard-to-define sense of unease in that

Self-Observation: What use is such an account to anyone else?

We are (most of us) very interested in ourselves and routi­nely engage in self-scrutiny at one level or another. But we do not usually seek

Reviewing the raw material from self-observation

A self-observation research procedure generates a lot of material. Its collection needs to be organized from the start, and progressively edited down. A good habit

Self-Observation: Observing how we work

The physical, habitual and social context of how we work or research is part of the picture. We don’t just exist in terms of what

Self-Observation method

Self-observation is best known as a way of enhancing per­formance, via video recording, widely used in interview training. Actors whose performances are filmed have long

Ethnographic methods: specific research problems

1. Ethnographic research is used to define a research problem Certain well-established research topics attract the researcher because of their extensive bodies of associated literature,

Ethnographic methods

1. Ethnographic methods: a general statement of utility As noted in the previous chapter, ethnographic methods have been adopted by scholars from many academic disciplines

Participant observation as style and context

It is certainly possible to use data collection techniques that are typical of ethno­graphic research (see Chapter 4) in ways that do not involve participant

Introduction to ethnography: basic principles, definition and nature

Despite this diversity of positions from which ethnographers may derive, we may still highlight a few important features that link the many and varied approaches:

Sociocultural theory and ethnographic research

As the ethnographic method has spread across disciplines, it has become associ­ated with a wide variety of theoretical orientations: structure-functionalism symbolic interactionism feminism Marxism ethnomethodology

A brief history of ethnographic research

Ethnography literally means a description of a people. It is important to under­stand that ethnography deals with people in the collective sense, not with indi­viduals.

A definition of observation

We have seen that ethnographic research is a judicious mix of observation, inter­viewing, and archival study. Since other volumes in this series will treat the

Data collection in the field for a ethnographic research

1. ‘Facts’ and ‘reality’ Trained biologists looking at cells under a microscope can come up with accu­rate descriptions of the components of those cells. If

Rapport on field site of ethnographic research

It goes without saying that all readers of this book are wonderful, generous, out­going, lovable people who would be welcome in communities around the world.

Selecting a field site for a ethnographic research

Having subjected yourself to a thorough personal review, you can now apply more objective criteria in deciding where you want to do your research. Some

Begin the ethnographic research with a personal inventory

It is often said that the one piece of equipment that an ethnographic researcher ultimately relies on is him or herself. It is all very

Ethnographic methods: research settings

Ethnographic research can be done wherever people interact in ‘natural’ group settings. Bringing people together for a specific purpose in controlled laboratory settings is a

Ethnography for the twenty-first century

1. The changing research context: technology Participant observation once implied a lone researcher working in a self- contained community, armed only with a notebook and

Ethical considerations in a ethnographic research

1. Levels of ethical considerations relevant for research There are three levels on which ethical considerations bear on the conduct of research: The official, published

Strategies for representing ethnographic data

1. Representing ethnographic data in traditional scholarly form Scientific writing of whatever length typically includes several key elements usually set out in a conventional order.

Analyzing ethnographic data

1. Patterns How do you recognize a pattern? Basically speaking, a true pattern is one that is shared by members of the group (their actual

Ethics and observational research

General questions of research ethics as they apply to ethnography are treated in a later chapter, but a few special points need to be dealt

Observations in public spaces

One of the most characteristic applications of observational research is that which is carried out in public spaces. Indeed, given the nature of this setting,

Observer bias

Ethnographers in general, and observation-based researchers in particular, are frequently criticized for the subjectivity that informs their work. Even the most apparently unobtrusive observation can

The question of validity in observational research

Quantitative researchers can demonstrate both the validity and the reliability of their data through statistical means. ‘Reliability’ is a measure of the degree to which

The process of observational research

‘Observation’ rarely involves a single act. Rather, it is a series of steps that builds toward the regularity and precision inherent in our working definition.

The task of observational research

Observational techniques are suitable for research dealing with specific settings (e.g. a shopping mall, a church, a school); events, which are defined as sequences of

Types of observational research

Although in its earliest manifestations as a research tool observation was sup­posed to be ‘non-reactive’, in fact observation presupposes some sort of contact with the

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Observation method in data collection can be

• Structured observation method – This is a systematic observation method where data is collected as per a pre-defined schedule. The specific variable is used in this method for data collection.
• Unstructured observation method – The unstructured observation method is conducted in a free and open manner without using any pre-determined objectives, schedules or variables.

Sampling methods for Observational Data

The researcher has a vital role to play as he will have to collect, record and classify the data appropriately. The primary sampling methods are

• Event sampling – In the event sampling observation method the researcher decides beforehand what events or behavior he will record and which ones he is going to ignore
• Time sampling – In the time sampling observation method, the researcher chooses the time when he will observe. He makes a record of the occurrence only in the specified and pre-determined period
• Target-time or instantaneous sampling –  In the target-time or instantaneous sampling observation method, the researcher decides beforehand the moments when the observation will happen and will be recorded at that moment. Everything that happens before or after that moment is of no consequence hence is typically ignored

Types of observation method

The different types of observation method are as follows:

The controlled observation is carried out in a closed space. It is the researcher who has the authority to decide the place and the time where and when the observation will take place. He also decides who the participants will be and in what circumstances will he use the standardized process.

The participants are chosen for a variable group randomly. The researcher observes and records a detailed and descriptive data of behavior and divides it into a distinct category. Sometimes the researcher codes the action as per an agreed scale by using a behavior schedule. The coding can include letters or numbers or a range to measure behavior intensity and describe its characteristics.

The collected data is often turned into statistics. In a controlled observation method, the participants are informed by the researcher about the aim of the research. This makes them aware of being observed. The researcher avoids direct contact during the observation method and generally uses a two-way mirror to observe and record details.

Advantages of controlled observation method

1. The data and information received from a controlled observation method are structured and analytical. It is thus easy to analyze it quickly and is considered less time-consuming than the other observation methods
2. Other researchers can easily replicate the report that has been created through the controlled observation method. They use a similar observation schedule, and this makes it easy to test for reliability.
3. As the controlled observation method is several quick observations can be conducted within a short time frame. Thus the researcher can collect large samples which makes it easier for him to generalize a large population

Limitations of controlled observation method 

1. The controlled observation method lacks validity because when the participants are aware of being observed their behavior will automatically change

2) Naturalistic observations

Social scientists and psychologists generally use the naturalistic observation method. The process involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of the participants in open or natural surroundings. The role of the researcher is to find and record whatever he can see and observe in natural habitat.

Advantages of naturalistic observation method 

1. When a participant is in a natural habitat, his flow of behavior is natural and not forced.
2. The studies have gained better ecological validity than the controlled observation method
3. The naturalistic observation method is used by the researchers to create new ideas. The researcher has the chance to observe the total situation and can find avenues that other people have not thought about

Limitations of naturalistic observation methods

1. The naturalistic observation method facilitates observations on a micro-scale. It often lacks a representative sample and thus cannot help the researcher in making a generalization that relates to a broader society
2. In this type of observation method, the researcher needs proper training to recognize aspects that are significant and worth attention.
3. The observations through naturalistic observation method are not as reliable as the researcher wants them to be because it is not possible to control some variables. This is why other researchers cannot similarly repeat the study or research.
4. Establishing the cause and effect relationship is not possible because the researcher cannot manipulate the variables

3) Participant observations

The participant observation method is often considered a variant of the naturalistic observation method because it has some similarities with it. The point of difference is that the researcher is not a distant observer anymore because he has joined the participants and become a part of their group. He does this to get a more in-depth and greater insight into their lives.

The researcher interacts with other members of the group freely, participates in their activities, studies their behavior and acquires a different way of life. Participant observation can be overt or covert.

1. Overt –When the researcher asks permission from a group to mingle the observation method is known as overt. He does so by revealing his true purpose and real identity to the group with whom he wants to mingle
2. Covert– When the researcher does not show either his true identity or real meaning to the group he wants to join then the observation is known as covert. He keeps both concealed and takes on a false role and identity to enter and mingle in the group. He generally acts as if he is a genuine member of that group

Advantages of Participant Observation methods

1. It is easy to study and observe the natural behavior of the participants in the group by becoming a part of that group. The respondents generally do not know that they are being observed and behavior recorded, so they are not restrained or constrained in their activities and behavior
2. The researcher becomes understanding by following the events of the respondents from such a close angle.
3. During the participant observation method, the researcher develops a good and healthy relationship with the respondents. This rapport helps him to participate in all the activities and make observations with a detached mind
4. The participant observation method helps the research to observe the actual behavior of the respondents and create an inclusive and intensive case study of that group
5. Actual participation in the activities provides the researcher with an opportunity to converse freely with other members about various events, their meaning and their importance to them. He gains an in-depth knowledge which would not have been possible only by observation.

Limitations of Participant Observation methods

1. It is challenging to work undercover. For example, the researcher will have only to observe and not record in front of others because he will not want to blow his cover. He relies heavily on his memory which can be faulty at times
2. Sometimes the researcher becomes too involved in the intricacies of that group. There is a higher chance of losing his objectivity because his reporting will be selective and dependent on his memory
3. The emotional participation of the researcher can result in bias interpretation. He will be influenced to some degree and a time might come when he would start supporting them unconditionally because their views and behavior will ultimately become his. This will result in a personal viewpoint of the scenario and not an objective or scientific report
4. In the participant observation method, the researcher’s experience becomes intense because of his proximity to the group members but the range becomes limited
5. The researcher misses many vital points because of his familiarity
6. Proximity with the group will involve him in group factionalism, and he will have to take sides. He then loses his objectivity as an impartial observer with whom everyone is ready to cooperate.

Advantages of Observation Method

• Provides direct access to research phenomena
• By observing firsthand, the researcher can collect, check and record accurate data
• Greater flexibility in terms of application
• Generate a permanent record of phenomena and the researcher or others can refer with it later
• The organization method is one of the simplest methods of data collection. It does not require too much technical knowledge
• The observation method is one of the best ways to formulate a hypothesis. The researcher can observe and come to know about the activities, perceptions, likes and dislikes to form a theory on his subject
• Observation method is one of the most common methods used in all sciences and is very easy to follow and accept
• In some instances observation is the only available tool to collect essential data and information
• The observation method does not require the willingness of the participant to record. The researcher can observe from a distance and record his findings

Disadvantages of Observation Method

• Faces a severe disadvantage because it takes a longer time frame compared to other data collection methods
• There is a chance of higher observer bias in the observation method
• Several personal behaviors are not open for observation and this proves a limitation in case of observation method
• There is a higher chance of the observer influencing the behavior of a sample group elements
• Uncertainties of the event cannot determine the actual time when the event will take place, and this is why every occurrence that is open to observation cannot be observed
• Many of the incidents are abstract like love, affection and the researcher can’t gain an exact and correct account of those
• The social phenomena generalization made by observation are not considered reliable as it cannot be used for lab experiments
• In some cases, it is seen that two persons observing the same phenomena come at different results and this can lead to faulty perceptions
• Observation method is considered an expensive affair as it requires hard effort, plenty of time and high cost