Study designs in qualitative research

This section provides a brief description of some of the commonly used designs in qualita­tive research. For an in-depth understanding you are advised to consult books on qualitative research.

1. Case study

The case study, though dominantly a qualitative study design, is also prevalent in quantita­tive research. A case could be an individual, a group, a community, an instance, an episode, an event, a subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be called a case study it is important to treat the total study population as one entity.

In a case study design the ‘case’ you select becomes the basis of a thorough, holistic and in­depth exploration of the aspect(s) that you want to find out about. It is an approach ‘in which a particular instance or a few carefully selected cases are studied intensively’ (Gilbert 2008: 36). According to Burns (1997: 364), ‘to qualify as a case study, it must be a bounded system, an entity in itself. A case study should focus on a bounded subject/unit that is either very representative or extremely atypical.’ A case study according to Grinnell (1981: 302), ‘is characterized by a very flexible and open-ended technique of data collection and analysis’.

The case study design is based upon the assumption that the case being studied is atypi­cal of cases of a certain type and therefore a single case can provide insight into the events and situations prevalent in a group from where the case has been drawn. According to Burns (1997: 365), ‘In a case study the focus of attention is the case in its idiosyncratic complexity, not on the whole population of cases.’ In selecting a case therefore you usually use purposive, judgemental or information-oriented sampling techniques.

It is a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or where you want to have a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site, group or community. This design is of immense relevance when the focus of a study is on extensively exploring and understanding rather than confirming and quantifying. It provides an overview and in-depth understanding of a case(s), process and interactional dynamics within a unit of study but cannot claim to make any generalisations to a population beyond cases similar to the one studied.

In this design your attempt is not to select a random sample but a case that can provide you with as much information as possible to understand the case in its totality. When studying an episode or an instance, you attempt to gather information from all available sources so as to understand it in its entirety. If the focus of your study is a group or community you should spend sufficient time building a trustworthy rapport with its members before collecting any information about them.

Though you can use a single method, the use of multiple methods to collect data is an important aspect of a case study, namely in-depth interviewing, obtaining information from secondary records, gathering data through observations, collecting information through focus groups and group interviews, etc. However, it is important that at the time of analysis you continue to consider the case as a single entity.

2. Oral history

Oral history is more a method of data collection than a study design; however, in qualitative research, this has become an approach to study perceptions, experiences and accounts of an event or gathering historical knowledge as viewed by individuals. It is a picture of something in someone’s own words. Oral history is a process of obtaining, recording, presenting and interpreting historical or current information, based upon personal experiences and opinions of some members of a study group or unit. These opinions or experiences could be based upon eye-witness evidence or information passed on from other sources such as older people, ancestors, folklore, stories. According to Ritchie (2003: 19), ‘Memory is the core of oral his­tory, from which meaning can be extracted and preserved. Simply put, oral history collects memories and personal commentaries of historical significance through recorded interviews.’ According to Burns (1997: 368), ‘these are usually first person narratives that the researcher collects using extensive interviewing of a single individual’.

In terms of design it is quite simple. You first decide what types of account, experience, per­ception or historical event you want to find out about. Then you need to identify the individuals or sources (which could be difficult and time consuming) that can best provide you with the needed information. You then collect information from them to be analysed and interpreted.

2. Focus groups/group interviews

Focus groups are a form of strategy in qualitative research in which attitudes, opinions or perceptions towards an issue, product, service or programme are explored through a free and open discussion between members of a group and the researcher. Both focus groups and group interviews are facilitated group discussions in which a researcher raises issues or asks questions that stimulate discussion among members of the group. Because of its low cost, it is a popular method for finding information in almost every professional area and academic field. Social, political and behavioural scientists, market research and product testing agencies, and urban and town planning experts often use this design for a variety of situations. For example, in marketing research this design is widely used to find out consumers’ opinion of and feed­back on a product, their opinions on the quality of the product, its acceptance and appeal, price and packaging, how to improve the quality and increase the sale of the product, etc. Focus groups are also prevalent in formative and summative evaluations and for developing social pro­grammes and services. It is also a useful tool in social and urban planning for identifying issues, options, development strategies, and future planning and development directions.

In its design it is very simple. You as a researcher select a group of people who you think are best equipped to discuss what you want to explore. The group could comprise individu­als drawn from a group of highly trained professionals or average residents of a community depending upon the objectives of the focus group. In the formation of a focus group the size of the group is an important consideration. It should be neither too large nor too small as this can impede upon the extent and quality of the discussion. Approximately eight to ten people are the optimal number for such discussion groups. You also need to identify carefully the issues for discussion providing every opportunity for additional relevant ones to emerge. As a researcher you also need to decide, in consultation with the group, the process of record­ing the discussion. This may include fixing the times that the group can meet to extensively discussing the issues and arriving at agreements on them. Your records of the discussions then become the basis of analysis for findings and conclusions. The main difference between a focus group and a group interview is in the degree of specificity with respect to the issues to be discussed. The issues discussed in focus groups are more specific and focused than in group interviews and they are largely predetermined by the researcher. In a group interview you let the group members discuss whatever they want. However, your role as a researcher is to bring them back to the issues of interest as identified by the group.

Compared with other designs this is less expensive and needs far less time to complete. The information generated can be detailed and rich and can be used to explore a vast variety of issues. However, the disadvantage is that if the discussion is not carefully directed it may reflect the opinion of those who have a tendency to dominate a group. This design is very useful for exploring the diversity in opinions on different issues but will not help you if you want to find out the extent or magnitude of this diversity.

4. Participant observation

Participant observation is another strategy for gathering information about a social interaction or a phenomenon in qualitative studies. This is usually done by developing a close interaction with members of a group or ‘living’ in the situation which is being studied. Though predominantly a qualitative research design, it is also used in quantitative research, depending upon how the information has been generated and recorded. In qualitative research, an observation is always recorded in a descriptive format whereas in quantitative research it is recorded either in categories or on a scale. It can also be a combi­nation of both — some categorisation and some description or categorisation accompanied by a descriptive explanation. You can also change a descriptive recording into a categorical one through analysis and classification. In addition to the observation itself, where you as an observer generate information, the information can also be collected through other methods such as informal interviewing, in-depth interviewing, group discussions, previ­ous documents, oral histories. Use of multiple methods will enhance the richness of the information collected by participant observation.

In its design it is simple. You as a researcher get involved in the activities of the group, cre­ate a rapport with group members and then, having sought their consent, keenly observe the situation, interaction, site or phenomenon. You make detailed notes of what you observe in a format that best suits you as well as the situation. You can also collect information using other methods of data collection, if need be. You analyse records of your observations and data collected by other means to draw inferences and conclusions.

The main advantage of participant observation is that as you spend sufficient time with the group or in the situation, you gain much deeper, richer and more accurate information, but the main disadvantage is that, if you are not very careful, you can intro­duce your own bias.

5. Holistic research

The holistic approach to research is once again more a philosophy than a study design. The design is based upon the philosophy that as a multiplicity of factors interacts in our lives, we cannot understand a phenomenon from just one or two perspectives. To understand a situ­ation or phenomenon you need to look at it in its totality — that is, holistically from every perspective.

You can use any design when exploring a situation from different perspectives and the use of multiple methods is prevalent and desirable.

6. Community discussion forums

Community discussion forums are designed to find opinions, attitudes and/ or ideas of a community with regard to community issues and problems. It is one of the very popular ways of seeking a community’s participation in deciding about issues of concern to mem­bers of the community. Such forums are also used for a variety of other reasons such as developing town planning options and community health programmes for a community, seeking participation of its members in resolving issues relating to traffic management, infra­structure development and determining future directions for the area, informing communities of new initiatives.

Community forums are very similar to group discussions except that these are on a bigger scale in terms of number of participants. Also, in group discussions you may select the partici­pants, but for community forums there is self-selection of the participants as they are open to everyone with an interest in the issues or concerns. The researcher usually uses local media to inform the residents of a local community about the forums.

This is a useful design to find out the spread of issues, concerns, etc., at a community level. It is economical and quick but there are some disadvantages. For example, it is possible that a few people with a vested interest can dominate the discussion in a forum and it is equally possible that on occasions there may be very low attendance. Such situations may result in the discussion not reflecting the community attitudes.

7. Reflective journal log

Basically, this design entails keeping a reflective journal log of your thoughts as a researcher whenever you notice anything, talk to someone, participate in an activity or observe something that helps you understand or add to whatever you are trying to find out about. These reflective records then become the basis of your findings and conclusions .You can have a reflective journal as the only method of data collection or it can be used in combination with other methods such as interviewing, group interviews, or secondary sources.

Source: Kumar Ranjit (2012), Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners, SAGE Publications Ltd; Third edition.